Indus Valley: Economy, Crafts, and Trade

New Crafts In The City (Harappan)

The development of cities in the Indus Valley Civilisation led to the emergence of specialised crafts. While farming and herding remained important in the surrounding rural areas, urban life facilitated the concentration of craftspersons and the production of a variety of goods.

Craft Specialisation in Harappan Cities:

• Archaeological evidence from sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, and Chanhudaro indicates the presence of specialised craft activities within the cities.
• Craftspersons produced goods not just for local consumption but also for trade with other Harappan settlements and possibly distant regions.

Examples of Crafts in Harappan Cities:

• Stone working: Making beads (carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite), weights (chert), blades. Workshops for bead-making have been found in cities like Lothal and Chanhudaro.
• Metal working: Working with copper and bronze to make tools, weapons, vessels, and ornaments. The metals were obtained from outside the Indus region.
• Pottery: Producing pottery, both plain and decorated with black designs. The pottery was used for storage, cooking, and other purposes.
• Seal making: Crafting seals, typically square or rectangular, made of steatite. Seals were often engraved with animal motifs (e.g., bull, unicorn) and the Harappan script. Seals were likely used in trade and administration.
• Terracotta figurine making: Creating figurines of humans (especially female figurines) and animals from baked clay.
• Shell working: Making ornaments and objects from shells.
• Weaving: Using cotton (evidence suggests cotton was grown) and wool to make textiles.
• Making carts and toys: Miniature terracotta carts and figures of animals and humans suggest these crafts were also practiced.

*(Image shows photographs or illustrations of Harappan seals, necklaces made of beads, decorated pottery pieces, and a terracotta figurine)*

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The diversity and quality of crafts found in Harappan cities indicate a level of specialisation and production beyond basic needs, supporting urban populations and trade activities.

In Search Of Raw Materials (Harappan)

Harappan cities were centres of craft production, but many of the raw materials needed for these crafts were not available locally within the cities. The people of the Indus Valley had to procure these materials from other areas, often over long distances.

Examples of Raw Materials and Their Sources:

• Stone: Different types of stones (e.g., carnelian, jasper, lapis lazuli, steatite, chert) were needed for making beads, weights, and seals. These were sourced from regions like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Afghanistan, and parts of the Deccan.
• Metals: Copper was needed for tools, weapons, and ornaments. Copper was likely brought from regions like Rajasthan (e.g., Khetri mines) and possibly Oman in West Asia. Tin was needed to make bronze by mixing it with copper; tin was probably brought from Afghanistan or Iran. Gold was used for ornaments, likely from regions like Karnataka (South India). Silver was possibly imported from Afghanistan or Iran.
• Shells: Used for ornaments and objects, sourced from coastal areas (e.g., along the Gujarat coast).
• Semi-precious stones: Lapis lazuli (a blue stone) was highly valued and imported from distant sources in Afghanistan.

The procurement of raw materials from diverse and often distant sources highlights the existence of established trade networks and organised systems for transportation.

Answer:

Food For People In The Cities (Harappan)

Harappan cities were large urban centres with thousands of inhabitants who were primarily engaged in crafts, trade, and administration. These urban populations relied on the production of food in the surrounding rural areas to sustain them.

Agricultural Production:

• People living in villages around the cities were the primary producers of food.
• They grew a variety of crops, including wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice (evidence from Lothal), sesame, linseed, and mustard.
• Cotton was also grown, and the Harappans were likely among the earliest people to grow cotton.
• Archaeological finds like burnt grain and seeds at different sites provide evidence of the crops grown.

Animal Rearing:

• People also reared animals, including cattle, sheep, goat, and buffalo.
• Animal bones found at sites indicate the types of animals kept.
• Water buffalo was a common domesticated animal.

Agricultural Technology:

• Farming likely relied on the fertile alluvial soil of the river plains.
• The plough was used for tilling the land, as indicated by terracotta models of ploughs found at sites (e.g., Banawali) and evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan.
• Irrigation was probably practised, especially in drier areas, possibly using canals or storing water. The sophisticated water management system at Dholavira is an example of adaptation to arid conditions.

Supplying Food to Cities:

• The agricultural surplus produced in the villages was transported to the cities to feed the urban population.
• The presence of large granaries in cities suggests the centralised storage of food grains, perhaps collected as revenue or managed by the state.

The Harappan civilisation represents a complex system where agricultural production in rural areas supported a thriving urban population engaged in specialised crafts and trade.

Finding Out About Craft Production (Harappan)

Archaeologists use various methods to find out about craft production in ancient cities like those of the Harappan Civilisation. The discovery and analysis of artifacts, tools, and workshops provide crucial evidence.

Evidence of Craft Production:

• Finished products: Finding objects like beads, pottery, metal tools, seals, figurines in houses, workshops, or markets indicates what crafts were practised.
• Raw materials: The presence of raw materials (e.g., lumps of copper ore, unfinished stones, shells) in specific locations suggests that these materials were being processed there.
• Tools: Discovery of tools used for specific crafts (e.g., drills for bead-making, moulds, furnaces) provides direct evidence of production techniques.
• Waste materials: Finding waste material (e.g., broken shell pieces, stone fragments, clay scraps, charcoal) indicates the presence of workshops and helps understand the production process.

Identifying Centres Of Production

Archaeologists can identify areas or sites that were centres of particular crafts by looking for concentrations of evidence related to that craft.

• Finding numerous unfinished objects, large quantities of raw materials, specific tools, and significant amounts of waste material in a particular area suggests that it was a workshop or a centre of production for that craft.
• Some sites might have specialised in specific crafts. For example, Chanhudaro, a smaller site compared to Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, seems to have been a major centre for bead-making, seal-making, and metal-working. Lothal also had evidence of bead-making and metal-working.
• By comparing the distribution of such evidence across different sites, archaeologists can identify whether a craft was practised in all urban centres or was more localised in specific places.

*(Image shows a photograph of an excavated area interpreted as a workshop, possibly showing tools, raw materials, or unfinished artifacts related to bead-making, shell-working, or metal-working)*

Finding out about craft production helps historians understand the economy, the level of skill and specialisation, the organisation of labour, and the trade networks that facilitated the movement of raw materials and finished goods in the Harappan civilisation.

Strategies For Procuring Materials (Harappan)

As many raw materials were not available locally in the major Harappan cities, the people of the Indus Valley developed various strategies to procure these materials from other regions, both within the Indian subcontinent and from distant lands.

Materials From The Subcontinent And Beyond

• Procurement of raw materials involved:
  • Sending expeditions: Organising trips to areas where resources were available. For example, expeditions were likely sent to the Khetri region of Rajasthan to obtain copper, or to regions like Kolar in Karnataka for gold.
  • Establishing settlements: Setting up smaller settlements in areas rich in resources. A Harappan settlement called Shortughai in distant Afghanistan, near the source of Lapis Lazuli, is an example.
  • Trade with local communities: Trading with communities living in regions where the required raw materials were found. The archaeological finds at Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture sites near the Khetri mines in Rajasthan show evidence of interaction and trade with the Harappans.
• Transportation of materials likely involved bullock carts (terracotta models found) and boats/ships (indicated by sites like Lothal and seals depicting boats).

Contact With Distant Lands

• Archaeological evidence clearly indicates that the Harappan civilisation had trade contacts with distant lands, particularly in West Asia.
• Mesopotamia: Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities. Mesopotamian texts mention trade with a region called 'Meluhha', which is widely believed to be the Indus Valley. They describe Meluhha as a land of seamen and mention importing goods like carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.
• Oman: Archaeological finds suggest interaction and possible trade for copper with Oman in the Arabian Peninsula.

The presence of Harappan seals and weights in West Asia, and the mention of trade in Mesopotamian texts, provide strong evidence of long-distance maritime and possibly overland trade networks.

*(Image shows a map of the Indus region and surrounding areas, indicating possible locations of resources like copper, gold, lapis lazuli, and possible trade routes connecting to Mesopotamia and Oman)*

These strategies for procuring raw materials highlight the economic dynamism and extensive connections of the Harappan civilisation with other regions, facilitated by organised trade and transportation systems.

Seals And Sealings (Harappan)

Seals and sealings are among the most distinctive artifacts found at Harappan sites. They are important archaeological sources that provide insights into the trade, administration, beliefs, and art of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Harappan Seals:

• Most seals are square or rectangular, made of steatite (a soft stone).
• They are typically engraved with motifs of animals (e.g., bull, elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, 'unicorn' - a mythical animal) and symbols of the Harappan script (undeciphered).
• Sometimes, human figures or scenes are also depicted (e.g., the 'Pashupati' seal showing a figure in a yogic posture surrounded by animals).

Harappan Sealings:

• Sealings are impressions of seals on wet clay.
• When goods were packed in bags or bundles for transport, a layer of wet clay would be applied to the knot, and a seal would be pressed onto it.
• The sealing indicated the authenticity of the sender and kept the package secure. If the sealing was found intact, it meant the package had not been tampered with during transit.

*(Image shows photographs of various Harappan seals with animal motifs and script, and possibly an example of a clay sealing)*

Significance of Seals and Sealings:

• Trade and Commerce: Seals and sealings are strong evidence of organised trade, indicating that goods were packaged and transported, and their identity and origin were marked. Their discovery in distant regions like Mesopotamia confirms the extent of trade networks.
• Administration: Seals might have been used for administrative purposes, such as marking ownership or authority.
• Art and Iconography: The animal motifs and figures on the seals are examples of Harappan art and iconography, providing clues about the animals that were important to them and their beliefs (though interpretation of meaning is difficult).
• Script: The presence of the Harappan script on seals is a key indicator that the civilisation had a form of writing, even though it is not yet understood.

Seals and sealings are among the most iconic Harappan artifacts, offering a window into their economic practices, administrative systems, and symbolic representations.

Weights (Harappan)

Standardised weights are another important class of artifacts found at Harappan sites. Their uniformity and precision indicate a well-developed system of measurement used for trade and possibly administration.

Characteristics of Harappan Weights:

• Weights are typically made of chert, a hard stone.
• They are usually cubical in shape, without any markings (unlike seals).
• Weights are found in a standardised series, following a binary system in the lower denominations (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, up to 12,800) and a decimal system in the higher denominations. The unit weight (16) is equivalent to approximately 13.6 grams.
• The precision and accuracy of these weights are remarkable, even small weights used for weighing precious metals like gold and silver have been found.

*(Image shows a photograph of several cubical Harappan weights made of chert, of varying sizes)*

Significance of Harappan Weights:

• Standardisation: The presence of weights of standard sizes and in a systematic series across different Harappan sites indicates a high degree of standardisation.
• Trade and Commerce: Standardised weights were essential for facilitating trade and ensuring fair transactions of goods and precious materials.
• Administration: The standardisation suggests the possibility of a regulating authority or a common understanding of measurement standards across the civilisation.
• Mathematical knowledge: The use of a binary and decimal system in weights indicates a level of mathematical understanding.

The existence of a precise and standardised system of weights, along with seals and sealings, provides strong evidence of the sophisticated economic organisation and trade practices of the Indus Valley Civilisation.